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The Rashidun () are the first four caliphs () who led the Ummah following the death of Muhammad: Abu Bakr (), Umar (), Uthman (), and Ali ().
The reign of these caliphs, called the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), is considered in Sunni Islam to have been 'rightly guided' (Arabic: ), meaning that it constitutes a model (Sunnah) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view.
Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which was tasked with producing copies of the Quran based on text that had been gathered separately on parchment, bones and rocks during the lifetime of Muhammad and also on a copy of the Quran that had been collated by Abu Bakr and left with Muhammad's widow after Abu Bakr's death. The committee members were also reciters of the Quran and had memorised the entire text during the lifetime of Muhammad. This work was undertaken due to the vast expansion of Islam under Uthman's rule, which encountered many different dialects and languages. This had led to variant readings of the Quran for those converts who were not familiar with the language. After clarifying any possible errors in pronunciation or dialects, Uthman sent copies of the sacred text to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, and destroyed variant texts.
Shortly after Uthman assassination in Medina, the crowds turned to Ali for leadership and were turned down initially. The explanation of Will Durant for Ali's initial reluctance is that, "Genial and charitable, meditative and reserved; he Ali shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics, and devotion by intrigue." In the absence of any serious opposition and urged particularly by the Ansar and the delegations, Ali eventually took up the mantle on 25th of Dhu al-Hijjah, 656 Common Era, and Muslims filled the Prophet's Mosque and its courtyard to pledge their allegiance to him.
It has been suggested that Ali inherited the grave internal problems of Uthman reign. After his appointment as the Caliphate, Ali transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in the present-day Iraq. Ali also dismissed most of Uthman's governors whom he considered corrupt, including Muawiya, Uthman's cousin. Under a lenient Uthman, Muawiya had built a parallel power structure in Damascus that, according to Wilferd Madelung, mirrored the despotism of the Byzantine Empire. Muawiya defied Ali's orders and, once the negotiations failed, the two sides engaged in a bloody and lengthy civil war, which is known as the .
After Ali's assassination in 661 CE at the mosque of Kufa, his son, Hasan, was elected Caliphate and adopted a similar approach towards Muawiya. However, as Muawiya began to buy the loyalties of military commanders and tribal chiefs, Hasan's military campaign suffered defections in large numbers. After a failed assassination attempt on his life, a wounded Hasan ceded the caliphate to Muawiya.
Upon conquest, in almost all cases, the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation's political loyalty.Nadvi (2000), pg. 408
In addition to wells, the Muslims built many tanks and . Many canals were purchased, and new ones constructed. While some canals were excluded for the use of monks (such as a spring purchased by Talhah), and the needy, most canals were open to general public use. Some canals were constructed between settlements, such as the Saad canal that provided water to Anbar, and the Abi Musa Canal to provide water to Basra.Nadvi (2000), pg. 405-6
During a famine, Umar ibn al-Khattab ordered the construction of a canal in Egypt connecting the Nile with the sea. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea-route, hitherto transported only by land. The canal was constructed within a year by 'Amr ibn al-'As, and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes that "Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come."Nadvi (2000), pg. 407-8
After four floods hit Mecca after Muhammad's death, Umar ordered the construction of two dams to protect the Kaaba. He also constructed a dam near Medina to protect its fountains from flooding.
Upon the conquest of Midian, it was settled by Muslims. However, soon the environment was considered harsh, and Umar ordered the resettlement of the 40,000 settlers to Kufa. The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks instead of reeds, a material that was popular in the region, but caught fire easily.
During the conquest of Egypt the area of Fustat was used by the Muslim army as a base. Upon the conquest of Alexandria, the Muslims returned and settled in the same area. Initially the land was primarily used for pasture, but later buildings were constructed.Nadvi (2000), pg. 416-7
Other already populated areas were greatly expanded. At Mosul, Arfaja al-Bariqi, at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, a few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population.Nadvi (2000), pg. 418
They were all close companions of Muhammad, and his relatives: the daughters of Abu Bakr and Umar, Aisha and Hafsa respectively, were married to Muhammad, and two of Muhammad's daughters Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum were married to Uthman and another daughter Fatimah to Ali. Likewise, their succession was not inheritance, something that would become the custom after them, beginning with the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate. Council decision or caliph's choice determined the successor originally.
The Sunni have long viewed the period of the Rashidun as an exemplary system of governance—based upon Islamic righteousness and merit—which they seek to emulate. The Sunni also equate this system with the worldly success that was promised by Allah, in the Quran and hadith, to those Muslims who pursued His pleasure; this spectacular success has further added to the emulatory appeal of the Rashidun era. (2010). 9780230106581, Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230106581 (2014). 9781118959503, John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118959503 (1997). 9789004106727, BRILL. ISBN 9789004106727
At the same time, it has been noted that the domination of Arabs over non-Arabs on an ethnic basis during Umar reign and the widespread nepotism of Uthman caliphate are in essential conflict with the call of Islam.
In the Shia view, since the time of the first prophet, Adam, the earth has never remained without an Imam, in the form of prophets and their divinely-appointed successors. Likewise, Imamate was passed on from Ali to the next Imam, Hasan, by divinely-inspired designation ( nass). After Hasan's death, Husayn and nine of his descendants are the Shia Imams, the last of whom, Mahdi, went into occultation in 260 Islamic calendar, due to the hostility of Mahdi's enemies and the danger to his life. His advent is awaited by the Shia and Sunni alike, although the Sunni hold different views about Mahdi. In his absence, the vacuum in the Shia leadership is partly filled by marjaiyya and, more recently, by wilayat al-faqqih, i.e., guardianship of the Islamic jurist.
While the Ismaili Shi'ites accept a closely-related understanding of Imamate as the Twelver Shia, the Ismailis under the leadership of the do recognize the caliphates of the first three caliphs before Ali while distinguishing Imamate as a separate office apart from the Caliphate:
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from: 632 till: 634 color:orange text:[[Abu Bakr]]
from: 634 till: 644 color:yellow text:[[Umar]]
from: 644 till: 656 color:blue text:Uthman ibn Affan
from: 656 till: 661 color:red text:[[Ali]]
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